對我國青年學(xué)者或學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)，用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作的難點(diǎn)不是沒(méi)有寫(xiě)作材料，不是不熟悉專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯，也不是沒(méi)有打下良好的英語(yǔ)基礎。用英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)論文難，是因為不太了解學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)。關(guān)于學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作的語(yǔ)言技巧，我們已在第一部分作了較詳細的介紹。此部分討論學(xué)術(shù)論文寫(xiě)作的方法，包括學(xué)術(shù)論文寫(xiě)作中常用的句型結構，我們都在此作較詳細介紹，以便讀者模仿練習，將寫(xiě)作工作化難為易。
一般來(lái)說(shuō)，一篇完整規范的學(xué)術(shù)論文由以下各部分構成：
Title(標題)
Abstract(摘要)
Keywords(關(guān)鍵詞)
Table of contents(目錄)
Nomenclature(術(shù)語(yǔ)表)
Introduction(引言)
Method(方法)
Results(結果)
Discussion(討論)
Conclusion(結論)
Acknowledgement(致謝)
Reference(參考文獻)
Appendix(附錄)
其中Title，Abstract，Introduction，Method，Result，Discussion，Conclusion，Reference等八項內容是必不可少的(其他內容根據具體需要而定)。在這八項內容中，讀者最多的是Title，Abstract和Introduction部分，讀者會(huì )根據這些內容來(lái)決定是否閱讀全文。也就是說(shuō)，一篇研究論文贏(yíng)得讀者的多少，在很大程度上取決于Title，Abstract和Introduction寫(xiě)得好壞。因此這三項內容將各分章詳細加以講述。
學(xué)術(shù)論文的正文一般包括Method，Result，Discussion三個(gè)部分。這三部分主要描述研究課題的具體內容、方法，研究過(guò)程中所使用的設備、儀器、條件，并如實(shí)公布有關(guān)數據和研究結果等。Conclusion是對全文內容或有關(guān)研究課題進(jìn)行的總體性討論。它具有嚴密的科學(xué)性和客觀(guān)性，反映一個(gè)研究課題的價(jià)值，同時(shí)提出以后的研究方向。
標題的寫(xiě)法
論文標題是全文內容的縮影。讀者通過(guò)標題便能夠預測論文的主要內容和作者的意圖，從而決定是否閱讀全文。因此，為了使文章贏(yíng)得有關(guān)領(lǐng)域里眾多的讀者，論文的標題必須用最精煉的語(yǔ)言恰如其分地體現全文的主題和核心。本章主要探討英語(yǔ)學(xué)術(shù)論文標題的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)及寫(xiě)法。
6.1 標題的長(cháng)度
標題 單詞總數 名詞數 介詞數 形容詞等
1) Fire Resistant Steels for Construction: Design, Properties and Microchemistry 9 6 1 2
2) Damping Capacity of Shape Memory Alloy 6 5 1 0
3) Microelectronic Assembly and Packaging Technology: Barriers and Needs 8 5 0 3
14) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell: A Survey 6 4 0 2
5) Progress on Fuel Cell and Its Materials 7 4 1 2
6) Computer Simulation and Experimental Study on Cold Shut During Mold Filling 11 5 2 4
英語(yǔ)科技論文中，標題不宜過(guò)長(cháng)，大多為8—12個(gè)單詞左右。
英文論文引言的寫(xiě)作技巧
引言的寫(xiě)作技巧
學(xué)術(shù)論文中的引言(Introduction)是對全文內容和結構的總體勾畫(huà)。引言盡管不像摘要那樣有一定的篇幅限制和相對固定的格式，但在內容和結構模式上也有需要遵循的規律。本章首先介紹這些規律，然后探討需要掌握的語(yǔ)言技巧。
8.1 引言的內容與結構布局
引言的主要任務(wù)是向讀者勾勒出全文的基本內容和輪廓。它可以包括以下五項內容中的全部或其中幾項：
介紹某研究領(lǐng)域的背景、意義、發(fā)展狀況、目前的水平等;
對相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的文獻進(jìn)行回顧和綜述，包括前人的研究成果，已經(jīng)解決的問(wèn)題，并適當加以評價(jià)或比較；
指出前人尚未解決的問(wèn)題，留下的技術(shù)空白，也可以提出新問(wèn)題、解決這些新問(wèn)題的新方法、新思路，從而引出自己研究課題的動(dòng)機與意義；
說(shuō)明自己研究課題的目的；
概括論文的主要內容，或勾勒其大體輪廓。
如何合理安排以上這些內容，將它們有條有理地給讀者描繪清楚，并非容易之事。經(jīng)驗告訴我們，引言其實(shí)是全文最難寫(xiě)的—部分。這是因為作者對有關(guān)學(xué)科領(lǐng)域的熟悉程度，作者的知識是淵博、還是貧乏，研究的意義何在、價(jià)值如何等問(wèn)題，都在引言的字里行間得以充分體現。
我們可以將引言的內容分為三到四個(gè)層次來(lái)安排(如圖8.1所示)。第一層由研究背景、意義、發(fā)展狀況等內容組成，其中還包括某一研究領(lǐng)域的文獻綜述；第二層提出目前尚未解決的問(wèn)題或急需解決的問(wèn)題，從而引出自己的研究動(dòng)機與意義；第三層說(shuō)明自己研究的具體目的與內容；最后是引言的結尾，可以介紹一下論文的組成部分。
第一層：1) Introducing the general research area including its background, importance, and present level of development……………………………………………………………2) Reviewing previous research in this area……………………………………………………………………第二層： Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………第三層：Specifying the purpose of your research………………………………………………………………………………………………………………第四層：1) Announcing your major findings ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………2) Outlining the contents of your paper …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
圖8.1 引言的結構布局之一
值得注意的是，引言中各個(gè)層次所占的篇幅可以有很大差別。這一點(diǎn)與摘要大不一樣，摘要中的目的、方法、結果、結論四項內容各自所占的篇幅大體比例一樣(見(jiàn)7.2節)。而在引言中，第一個(gè)層次往往占去大部分篇幅。對研究背景和目前的研究狀況進(jìn)行較為詳細的介紹。研究目的可能會(huì )比較簡(jiǎn)短。
引言與摘要還有一點(diǎn)不同的是，摘要中必須把主要研究結果列出，而在引言中(如果摘要與正文一同登出)結果則可以省略不寫(xiě)，這是因為正文中專(zhuān)門(mén)有一節寫(xiě)結果(results)，不必在引言中重復。
下面這段引言的例子摘自一篇關(guān)于混合電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的研究論文，大部分篇幅介紹研究背景。
例1
A Hybrid Internal Combustion Engine/Battery Electric Passenger Car for Petroleum Displacement I. Forster and J. R. Bumby INTRODUCTION [1] The finite nature of the world's oil resources and the general concern about automobile emissions have prompted the adoption of energy conservation policies and emphasized the need to transfer energy demand from oil to other sources of energy, such as natural gas, coal and nuclear. [2] A transfer of energy from oil to electricity can be achieved to a limited extent in the road trans- port sector by the increased use of electric vehicle. However, such vehicles are limited in range due to the amount Of energy that can he realistically stored on-board the vehicle without affecting payload. As a consequence of this, electric vehicles must he used in situations where daily usage is well defined, for example, in urban delivery duty. Indeed, it has been in such vehicles as the urban milk delivery vehicles that electric traction drives have been traditionally applied with a great deal of success. Currently the demand is for urban electric vehicles to he developed with greater traffic compatibility in terms of speed and range. 分析：第一層(第1—5段)：介紹混合電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的研究背景、意義、目前的發(fā)展水平，需要解決的問(wèn)題等。第1段：指出混合電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的研究背景。世界石油資源的有限性及人們對汽車(chē)排放問(wèn)題的廣泛關(guān)注使得能源轉換問(wèn)題尤為重要。第2段：使用電動(dòng)汽車(chē)能夠從某種程度上實(shí)現能源轉換。但問(wèn)題是電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的續駛里程比內燃機車(chē)短。所以目前要解決的問(wèn)題是提高電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的速度和續駛里程。
[3] Although urban delivery vehicle applications will help to reduce the dependence of the road transport sector on petroleum-based fuels, the major part of this market requires vehicles that are not limited in range and have a performance compatible with internal combustion, i.e. engine vehicles. The use of advanced traction battery technology to overcome the range limitation of electric vehicles is one possible solution. However, this would still result in a vehicle limited in range and may in itself create additional problems. For example, due to the much greater on- board stored energy, the charging time required will be greater than at present. [4] The range limitations of the pure electric vehicle can be overcome by using a hybrid i.c. engine/electric drive which incorporates both an i.c. engine and an electric traction system. Al- though such a vehicle can be designed to meet a number of objectives, it has been argued that a vehicle which seeks to remove the range limitation of the electric vehicle while substituting a substantial amount of petroleum fuel by electrical energy is the vehicle most worth pursuing. With the emphasis of the vehicle design on the electric drive train, the intention may be to operate in an all-electric mode under urban conditions and to use the i.c. engine for long-distance motorway driving. The hybrid mode could then he used for extending urban range and/or improving vehicle accelerative performance on accelerator kick-down.[5] The concept of a hybrid electric vehicle capable of substituting petroleum fuel is' not new, 第3段：市場(chǎng)要求電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的續駛里程及工作性能與內燃機汽車(chē)媲美，但是，即使先進(jìn)電池可以提高電動(dòng)汽車(chē)的續駛里程，但還會(huì )有一些問(wèn)題不能解決。 第4段：續駛里程可以通過(guò)使用混合電動(dòng)汽車(chē)來(lái)提高?；旌想妱?dòng)汽車(chē)上既裝有內燃機，又裝有電動(dòng)驅動(dòng)系統，在必要時(shí)使用其中一種系統。第5段：回顧并評述前人關(guān)于混合電動(dòng)汽車(chē)
Bosch and Volkswagen having built vehicles in the 1970s. More recently, the advent of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development and Demonstration Programme in the United States of America initiated the design and construction of a Near Term Hybrid Vehicle (NTHV) with the principal aim of substituting petroleum fuel by ' wall plug' electricity. [6] As part of the NTHV programme, a large number of conceptual studies were conducted but on vehicles aimed at the American passenger car market. In this paper optimization studies were conducted, but now on a vehicle suitable for the European medium-sized passenger car market. Such optimization studies are important as, with two sources of traction power available, the way in which they are controlled, and their relative sizing, is fundamental to the way the vehicle performs.[7] Before examining in detail the optimum control strategy for the drive train, Section 2 defines the hybrid arrangement under study. A description of the optimization process using an appro
摘要的寫(xiě)作技巧
英文摘要(Abstract)的寫(xiě)作應用很廣。不僅參加國際學(xué)術(shù)會(huì )議、向國際學(xué)術(shù)刊物投稿要寫(xiě)摘要，國內級別較高的學(xué)術(shù)期刊也要求附上英文摘要。學(xué)位論文更是如此。論文摘要是全文的精華，是對一項科學(xué)研究工作的總結，對研究目的、方法和研究結果的概括。本章主要介紹摘要的組成部分、寫(xiě)作方法、各部分的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)以及典型句型。
1. 摘要的種類(lèi)與特點(diǎn)
摘要主要有以下四種。
第一種是隨同論文一起在學(xué)術(shù)刊物上發(fā)表的摘要。這種摘要置于主體部分之前，目的是讓讀者首先了解一下論文的內容，以便決定是否閱讀全文。一般來(lái)說(shuō)，這種摘要在全文完成之后寫(xiě)。字數限制在100～150字之間。內容包括研究目的、研究方法、研究結果和主要結論。
第二種是學(xué)術(shù)會(huì )議論文摘要。會(huì )議論文摘要往往在會(huì )議召開(kāi)之前幾個(gè)月撰寫(xiě)，目的是交給會(huì )議論文評審委員會(huì )評閱，從而決定是否能夠錄用。所以，比第一種略為詳細，長(cháng)度在200—300字之間。會(huì )議論文摘要的開(kāi)頭有必要簡(jiǎn)單介紹一下研究課題的意義、目的、宗旨等。如果在寫(xiě)摘要時(shí)，研究工作尚未完成，全部研究結果還未得到，那么，應在方法、目的、宗旨、假設等方面多花筆墨。
第三種為學(xué)位論文摘要。學(xué)士、碩士和博士論文摘要一般都要求用中、英文兩種語(yǔ)言寫(xiě)。學(xué)位論文摘要一般在400字左右，根據需要可以分為幾個(gè)段落。內容一般包括研究背景、意義、主旨和目的；基本理論依據，基本假設；研究方法；研究結果；主要創(chuàng )新點(diǎn)；簡(jiǎn)短討論。不同級別的學(xué)位論文摘要，要突出不同程度的創(chuàng )新之處，指出有何新的觀(guān)點(diǎn)、見(jiàn)解或解決問(wèn)題的新方法。
第四種是脫離原文而獨立發(fā)表的摘要。這種摘要更應該具有獨立性、自含性、完整性。讀者無(wú)需閱讀全文，便可以了解全文的主要內容。
以上四種摘要具有許多共性。無(wú)論哪種摘要，內容一般都包括：
(1)目的(objectives，purposes)：包括研究背景、范圍、內容、要解決的問(wèn)題及解決這一問(wèn)題的重要性和意義。
(2)方法(methods and materials)：包括材料、手段和過(guò)程。
(3)結果與簡(jiǎn)短討論(results and discussions)：包括數據與分析。
(4)結論(conclusions)：主要結論，研究的價(jià)值和意義等。
無(wú)論哪種摘要，語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)和文體風(fēng)格也都相同。首先必須符合格式規范。第二，語(yǔ)言必須規范通順，準確得體，用詞要確切、恰如其分，而且要避免非通用的符號、縮略語(yǔ)、生偏詞。另外，摘要的語(yǔ)氣要客觀(guān)，不要作出言過(guò)其實(shí)的結論。
下面從內容、結構布局和語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)三方面著(zhù)手，討論摘要的寫(xiě)作方法和技巧。
2. 摘要的內容與結構
一般來(lái)說(shuō)，摘要必須包括研究目的，研究方法，研究結果，主要結論等內容。也就是說(shuō)，摘要必須回答“研究什么”、“怎么研究”、“得到了什么結果”、“結果說(shuō)明了什么”等問(wèn)題。
2.1 學(xué)術(shù)期刊論文摘要
這種摘要隨同全文一起發(fā)表，簡(jiǎn)短精煉是其主要特點(diǎn)。只需簡(jiǎn)明扼要地將研究目的、方法、結果和結論分別用1～2句話(huà)加以概括即可(如圖所示)。至于研究背景或宗旨應在論文的Introduction部分較詳細介紹，不必在摘要里介紹。
Title
Author(s), address
Objectives,purpose,hypotheses ..............................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Methods,materials,procedures .................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Results,data,observations,discussion ...........................................…………………………………………………………………… Conclusions .............................................................................................................................
期刊論文摘要結構布局
例1．
DOES ALUMINUM ENTER THE LIQUID OONTAINED
IN POP CANS AND ALUMINUM COOKWARE?
Daniel T. Moss
Campbell, 353 North King St., Xenia OH 45385
Objective: 1This investigation was performed to see if the aluminum in pop cans (易拉罐)and aluminum cookware enters the liquid they contain. It was hypothesized that aluminum does enter the liquids in aluminum cans and cookware. Methods and Materials: This experiment was performed by testing seven different types of carbonated beverages and water boiled in aluminum cookware for three hours. Every hour a sample was removed for testing. The cookware consisted of a new and old aluminum pot. The colorimetric method was used to determine the concentration of aluminum. Results: The results showed that aluminum was present in carbonated beverages and in the water boiled in the cookware. Conclusions: It was concluded that aluminum existed in carbonated beverages and substances cooked in aluminum cookware, and that the concentration of aluminum increased with time. (126 words)
(本章選文中黑體部分為編者注。)
分析：
本摘要共8句話(huà)，126個(gè)詞。第1句話(huà)指出了研究目的：裝在易拉罐或鋁制炊具中的液體是否含有鋁。第2句是假設，鋁可能真的會(huì )進(jìn)人裝在鋁制罐子或炊具中的液體之中。第3～6句是實(shí)驗材料、時(shí)間與方法。第7句是實(shí)驗結果。第8句是結論：存放于鋁制容器或炊具中的液體內含有鋁，而且存放的時(shí)間越長(cháng)，鋁含量越高。
例1中的主要句型結構如下：
This investigation was performed to see 表示研究目的
It was hypothesized that 表示假設
This experiment was performed by testing 表示實(shí)驗過(guò)程和方法
The colorimetric method was used to determine 表示測量方法
The results showed that 表示實(shí)驗結果
It was concluded that 表示結論
例2
FACTORS INVOLVED IN POAG:
CAROTENOID INTAKE, EYE COLOR, ANDGIRTH MEASUREMENTS
C. A. Greenell and D. M. Spillman
Department of Physical Education, Health and Sports Studies,
Phillops Hall, Miami University, Oxford Oh 45056
Objective: This study investigates possible effects of high intake of carotenoids(類(lèi)胡羅卜素), eye color, and girth measurements(眼睛大小)on primary open angle glaucoma (POAG 青光眼). Methods and Materials: Researchers designed a questionnaire that inquired about diet and family and personal health history. This questionnaire was administered to 250 individuals suffering from glaucoma. Results and Discussion: The dietary data suggested a possible correlation between low habitual intake of vitamin A, E, and C and higher risk of POAG. In addition, the number of persons suffering from POAG with blue eye color was significantly higher than those with brown or green. Finally, a possible association was suggested concerning girth measurements: those persons with proportionately larger than normal girth measurements may be more likely to suffer from POAG. (117 words)
分析：·
本摘要只有6句話(huà)，117個(gè)詞。第1句話(huà)明確指出研究目的：說(shuō)明類(lèi)胡蘿卜素的攝人量大、眼睛顏色及眼睛大小與青光眼的關(guān)系。第2—3句是研究方法與研究對象。方法是通過(guò)調查問(wèn)卷，研究對象是250名青光眼患者。第4～6句話(huà)每句話(huà)是調查結果：
1) 維生素A、E、C攝人量低可能與青光眼發(fā)病率高有關(guān)系；
2) 藍眼睛青光眼患者的比例遠遠超過(guò)棕色眼睛或綠色眼睛青光眼患者；
3) 眼睛過(guò)大的人患青光眼的可能性更大。
本摘要中的主要句型結構：
This study investigates…表示研究?jì)热莼蚰康?br>
Researchers designed a questionnaire…表示研究方法
This questionnaire was administered to…表示研究對象
The dietary data suggests that…表示調查數據與結果
A possible association has been suggested…表示調查結果
2.2 學(xué)術(shù)會(huì )議論文摘要
學(xué)術(shù)會(huì )議論文摘要寫(xiě)得好壞，直接關(guān)系到論文是否被錄用。摘要起到說(shuō)服會(huì )議論文評審委員會(huì )的作用。因此，摘要應該首先簡(jiǎn)要說(shuō)明研究背景、內容、范圍、價(jià)值與意義。在研究方法上也可以多花一點(diǎn)筆墨。會(huì )議論文摘要一般在200～250詞之間。其結構布局如圖2所示。
Title
Author(s), address
Background, 15revious studies, present situation, problems that need to be
solved:
正文的寫(xiě)作技巧
學(xué)術(shù)論文的主體部分由引言、正文和結論構成。正文部分包括方法、結果與討論。由于學(xué)術(shù)論文所涉及的學(xué)科、范圍廣泛，即使在同一學(xué)科領(lǐng)域內，由于選題、研究方法、工作進(jìn)程不同，正文部分的內容也不盡相同，寫(xiě)作方法也就不存在統一的規定或一成不變的模式。所以，本章只著(zhù)重介紹寫(xiě)正文部分時(shí)一些較為典型的語(yǔ)言現象，希望讀者能夠從中尋求到一般規律。
7.1 描述研究方法
研究方法(Method)部分主要內容包括：
(1)研究工作具備的基本前提或條件，如實(shí)驗材料、實(shí)驗場(chǎng)所、設備器材等。
(2)采樣、實(shí)驗、獲取數據，并對數據進(jìn)行技術(shù)處理的方法與過(guò)程。
(3)理論分析，包括理論依據、基本原理、公式推導、數理模型等。
采樣與實(shí)驗過(guò)程，要根據先后順序或步驟進(jìn)行描述。例1選自描述對千屈萊這種植物生長(cháng)的采樣與實(shí)驗過(guò)程。
例l
Materials and Methods
[1] In August 1994，entire purple loosestrife(千屈萊)plants were harvested from three habitats(生長(cháng)環(huán)境)：1) an upland old field in the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area in north-eastern Ohio (n=5)；2) a shallow ditch along Route 261 in Kent, OH (n = 10); and 3) the western shoreline of East Twin Lake, Portage County, OH (n = 6). These sites represent habitats which are never inundated(淹沒(méi)) with water, are periodically inundated, or have saturated(浸透) soils, respectively. [2]Shoot sections (嫩枝條)of 5, 10, and 15 cm lengths were cut from these plants and positioned in flats(平地) containing a soil mixture of perlite (珍珠巖), vermiculite ( 蛭巖), and peatmoss (苔泥炭) ( 1:1:1). The flats were maintained in the Department of Biological Sciences' greenhouse where they experienced ambient meteorological conditions except for 6 seconds of mist every 3. 5 minutes between 8: 00 and 20: 00 hours daily. Shoot sections and attached leaves were examined at weekly intervals for pigment (色質(zhì)) and tissue changes as well as for development of lateral shoots. After 26～28 days the sections were rinsed to remove adherent material and dried at room temperature (approximately 22℃ ) for a week. The adventitious roots from each section were removed with needle-nose forceps, dried at 60℃ for 24 hours, and then weighed to determine dry biomass. One lake site 5-cm section was lost during processing.
分析：
此部分嚴格按照時(shí)間順序描述實(shí)驗過(guò)程。第1段描述采樣的時(shí)間、試樣的來(lái)源與數量。名叫“千屈萊”的試樣來(lái)自三個(gè)地帶，分別代表三種生長(cháng)環(huán)境。試樣的數量分別是5、10、6棵。第2段首先描述實(shí)驗基地，及其環(huán)境與條件。然后客觀(guān)描述實(shí)驗的詳細過(guò)程與步驟。描述某一研究方法時(shí)，要考慮讀者是否了解此方法。如果不了解，描述便需要詳細一些。這一點(diǎn)在農、林、醫學(xué)、教育、社會(huì )科學(xué)、環(huán)境科學(xué)等領(lǐng)域尤為突出。例2中的選段描述的是一個(gè)關(guān)于生活用水和農業(yè)用水質(zhì)量”函授培訓班的教學(xué)與評估方法。由于教學(xué)過(guò)程與評估方法的特殊性，讀者事先不可能對它有詳細了解，所以文中要描述得清楚、詳細一些。
例2
Correspondence Teaching Methods
[1] The program evaluated in this research was a correspondence training course entitled "Quality Water for Home and Farm" developed for county extension agents( 函授部學(xué)員). The program began with a one-day meeting followed by seven monthly written lessons. The program concluded with another one-day meeting. The one lesson-per-month format was selected to allow agents to complete the assignments as part of their regular work schedule.
[2] The program followed a simple model for identifying water quality problems and potential solutions.
Step 1: Identify the beneficial uses of water (such as for drinking water, livestock water, irrigation, recreation).
Step 2: Test the water to ensure that it is of sufficient quality for the beneficial use.
Step 3: If water quality problems are identified, examine correction options in four categories to determine which is most affordable and appropriate. The categories are:
1. Protect the supply from the contaminant;
2. Find and eliminate the contaminant source;
3. Treat the water to remove the contaminant;
4. Find and develop a new water supply.
[3] Steps 1 and 2 on water testing were presented to participants in the initial six-hour meeting. The first correspondence lesson also covered water testing. The six remaining correspondence lessons addressed each of the options for solving water quality problems. Water treatment was divided into three lessons; disinfection, treatment of nuisance waters, and removals of toxins. The final lesson and final meeting covered the development of new water supplies. Each written lesson contained reading material, references, teaching materials, questions, calculations, and exercises.
[4]Agents taking the water quality correspondence training were required to return assignments each month to remain enrolled in the program. Letters of encouragement were sent to delinquents. At the end of the program, extension agents who completed the program received certificates. A list of graduates was distributed to extension administrators, faculty, and staff.
Evaluation Methods
[5]The participants were tested to evaluate the extent of learning. Simple tests were constructed of true/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the-blank questions to address the important aspects of the program using methods described by Ary et al. (1990). A written pretest was administered at the beginning of the first meeting. A post test of similar but different questions was administered at the end of the closing meeting. The purpose of the pretest was to measure the previous knowledge of the participants. The participants may also learn the subject matter from the pretest, become familiar with the testing approach and therefore be less anxious when taking the post test.
[6] The post tests were used to measure the increased knowledge and skills of the participants following the inservice. The post tests also served to reinforce the most important aspects of the training and helped illustrate to the participants and instructor where additional study may be required.
[7] Acquisition of new skills was evaluated using practicum exercises and demonstrations. Following instruction in how to interpret a test report each participant was given a water test report and asked to write their interpretation. After being taught how to collect a water sample, five agents were selected at random and asked to collect a water sample for the instructor.
[8] The teaching activity of the agents was measured through their monthly assignment reports.
分析：
例2比較詳細地描述一個(gè)函授培訓班的管理、教學(xué)與評估方法。第1～4段為管理與教學(xué)方法。篇章的布局模式基本上是先后順序與步驟式，即按照培訓班的三個(gè)主要階段的先后順序來(lái)安排文章的結構。
第5～8段介紹培訓班學(xué)習效果的評估方法。共采用三種方法進(jìn)行評估。第5～6段介紹對主要教學(xué)內容的整體評估方法，也就是將pretest(培訓前測試)與posttest(培訓后測試)相結合的方法。第7段和第8段分別介紹教學(xué)過(guò)程中單項技能評估方法。
7.1.1 描述方法時(shí)的語(yǔ)言特點(diǎn)
采用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)的過(guò)去式是描述實(shí)驗方法與過(guò)程時(shí)最典型的句子結構特點(diǎn)。這并不是科技英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中的什么規定或者原則，而是因為在描述實(shí)驗過(guò)程或方法時(shí)，句子中的主題或中心是實(shí)驗材料、場(chǎng)地和方法本身，表達“做了什么”、“怎么做的”之意，而不是表達“誰(shuí)做了什么”。因此，在描述方法時(shí)，常將實(shí)驗材料或受試者作為主語(yǔ)，謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞自然要用被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)。我們可以利用例1和例2中的句子加以說(shuō)明。
結論、致謝、參考文獻
8.1 如何寫(xiě)結論
學(xué)術(shù)文章的結論部分(Conclusion)是作者對有關(guān)研究課題進(jìn)行的總體性討論。結論必須具有嚴密的科學(xué)性和客觀(guān)性，它反映本研究課題的價(jià)值，同時(shí)對以后的研究具有指導意義。如果文章中的Discussion一節已對研究結果進(jìn)行了全面的分析、綜合、歸納、推理和總結，那么Conclusion則可以比較簡(jiǎn)短。
從某種意義上說(shuō)，Conclusion與Introduction遙相呼應，因為Introduction部分介紹了本課題的研究目的，那么Conclusion要告訴讀者這些目的是否達到，在研究中做了哪些工作，取得了什么結果，這些結果說(shuō)明了什么問(wèn)題，有何價(jià)值和意義，研究過(guò)程中存在或發(fā)現了哪些問(wèn)題，原因是什么，建議如何解決等。
8.1.1 結論部分的內容與結構布局
一般來(lái)說(shuō)，結論部分的具體內容及其組織框架如下。
(1) 概括說(shuō)明本課題的研究?jì)热?、結果及其意義與價(jià)值。(2) 比較具體地說(shuō)明本研究證明了什么假設或理論，得出了什么結論，研究結果有何實(shí)用價(jià)值，有何創(chuàng )造性成果或見(jiàn)解，解決了什么實(shí)際問(wèn)題，有何應用前景等。(3) 與他人的相關(guān)研究進(jìn)行比較。(4) 本課題的局限性、不足之處，還有哪些尚待解決的問(wèn)題。
(5)展望前景，或指出進(jìn)一步研究的方向。在上面五項內容中，第一、二項是必不可少的。第三、四、五項內容可以根據需要而定。
例1 Conclusion 1Two factors to influence mold filling (鑄件充型) have been studied. one is the pouring temperature (澆鑄溫度) and the other is the molding method (by machine or by hand). 2The filling length (充型長(cháng)度) is proportional to the pouring temperature. 3The influence of different molding methods on mold filling is more complicated. 4The filling length in the hand-made mold is 1.5 times as long as the one in the machine-made mold due to different thermal conductivity ( 熱導性能). 5Venting (出氣孔) has little influence. 6The simulated results are in good agreement with the experiments.
分析：第1句概括研究?jì)热荩貉芯坑绊戣T件充型的兩個(gè)因素，即澆鑄溫度與鑄型方法。第2～5句總結通過(guò)研究而得出的結論，即上述兩個(gè)因素是如何影響鑄件充型的。其中第2句說(shuō)明第一個(gè)因素(澆鑄溫度)與充型長(cháng)度的關(guān)系是成比例的。第3句說(shuō)明第二個(gè)因素(鑄型方法)的影響比較復雜。第4句說(shuō)明手工鑄型與機器鑄型方法對長(cháng)度的不同影響。第5句說(shuō)明出氣孔的影響小。第6句是對研究結果的總結性評價(jià)。
例2 Conclusions 1Through the example of a 60-storey building design, it has been demonstrated that a simplified approach can be used to assess the ultimate lateral shear strength (整體極限抗剪能力) of a structure. 2The proposed simplified design approach in the typical building seismic design process (抗震設計過(guò)程) would be valuable. 3From the findings of the simplified design, new building can be fine tuned for a better allocation of material. 4 In existing buildings, the approach can be used to identify locations of potential undercapacity (載荷能力弱的部分). 5Although the proposed approach is based on solid capacity design concepts, it involves substantial implifications. 6To confirm the results of this simplified approach, a more complete analysis of the core-frame system is suggested for further studies.
分析：例2選自一篇建筑物整體極限抗剪能力的測算方法的論文。首先概括了文章的內容，而且指出了本研究的局限性，并為下一步研究工作提出了建議。選段中的第1句概括研究課題內容，即提出了一個(gè)整體極限抗剪能力測算的簡(jiǎn)便方法。第2～4句肯定了這一設計方法的價(jià)值和應用前景。分別說(shuō)明此方法有利于建筑物的抗震設計、建筑材料的合理分配，也有利于查出建筑物內荷載能力弱的部分。第5句是這一方法的局限性：盡管此方法以負載能力理論為依據，但做了大量的簡(jiǎn)化工作。因此第6句建議下一步研究方向，以證明文中所提出的方法的可靠性。
例31Overall, our study has revealed a variety of patterns at the community and population levels, none of which seem to indicate obvious decline in southeastern Ohio's oak-hickory (橡樹(shù)與山核桃科樹(shù)木) forests. 2Clearly, sporadic insect outbreaks, pathogens (病菌), and climatic events have caused excessive mortality of certain species in certain stands (樹(shù)林). 3Some stands exhibited mortality as high as 40%. 4However, an average of 20% dead stems in a stand appears to be reasonable without inferring excessive mortality or decline. 5Likewise, certain species were in an obvious state of decline, but these generally had a clear pathogenic explanation. 6Changes occurring due to insects and pathogens may be a natural and necessary phenomenon (Castello et al. 1995). 7Evaluation of decline symptoms in smaller size classes might provide additional useful information to be used in understanding the oak regeneration problem.
分析：例3摘自一篇關(guān)于俄亥俄東南部地區橡樹(shù)與山核桃科樹(shù)木生長(cháng)狀況的研究論文。第1句：對研究?jì)热莸目傮w概括。第2～5句：總結研究結果，即某些樹(shù)種死亡的原因是害蟲(chóng)、病菌和氣候。其中第2句概括這些原因，第3～5句是具體結果及原因：有些林區的樹(shù)木死亡率為40％，但是20％屬于正?，F象；有些樹(shù)種死亡現象明顯，原因是病菌的侵害。第6句：引用他人的研究結果和觀(guān)點(diǎn)，以解釋上述結果。害蟲(chóng)和病菌的侵襲所造成的樹(shù)木死亡是一種自然和必然的現象。第7句：指出以后的研究方向。下面一則結論摘自一篇關(guān)于學(xué)?？萍蓟顒?dòng)項目是否有助于達到科學(xué)教育目標的研究論文。
例41Science projects appear to be an important part of science education. 2Teachers feel that student science projects are meeting the educational goals for science. 3Experience through modeling the necessary skills in the classroom has the strongest relationship to science projects meeting these goals. 4Participation in a science fair beyond the local level, and supportive help from parents and other adults may also improve the effectiveness of student science projects. 5By utilizing these methods, more teachers may be able to address the goals of the National Science Teachers Association.
分析：第1—2句為總體結論：學(xué)校的科技活動(dòng)是科技教育中的一個(gè)重要組成部分。教師認為，學(xué)生的科技活動(dòng)有助于實(shí)現科技教育目標。第3～4句為兩條具體結論：第一條結論是：課堂上的模擬操作活動(dòng)經(jīng)驗與實(shí)現科技教育的目標有密切關(guān)系。第二條結論是：參加科技博覽會(huì )、父母或其他成人的支持可以提高學(xué)生科技活動(dòng)的效果。第5句展望未來(lái)趨勢。從上述例子可以看出，通過(guò)一項研究工作，可能會(huì )得出幾條結論，這些結論的主次輕重可以從字里行間表現出來(lái)。如例4中的第3句話(huà)通過(guò)使用…h(huán)as the strongest relationship…點(diǎn)出了最主要的結論，而在第4句話(huà)中運用…also…這個(gè)詞，來(lái)表示遞進(jìn)關(guān)系，說(shuō)明這句話(huà)陳述的內容是研究結論之二。有時(shí)為了清楚醒目，可以將結論列成幾條，例5和例6都是如此。
例5Conclusions(1) A systematic crashworthiness ( 碰撞性能) development of a lightweight electrical vehicle with aluminum front structure and composite (復合材料) passenger compartment is successfully completed and discussed here. Nonlinear finite element analysis (非線(xiàn)性有限元分析法) is used extensively to design and optimize the aluminum structure. (2) Implementation of damage mechanics models in the nonlinear crash codes reliably predict the post-yield behavior of aluminum components, and therefore, the codes can be successfully used for crashworthiness development of metallic structures with limited ductility (韌性有限的金屬結構).(3) Even though crash analysis of composite members is not possible at this time, current modeling technology provides sufficient information about their design.(4) Development of material models in crash analysis codes to simulate the crash behavior of composite components can help to develop composite front-end structures for crashworthiness performance.
例6 Conclusions In this paper, a new prototype model of micropump(微小醫用泵) using ICPF actuator (驅動(dòng)控制器) is proposed.
總之，各位同學(xué)在英國寫(xiě)論文，需要按照實(shí)際論文的要求，仔細把握寫(xiě)作大綱，按照要求來(lái)寫(xiě)作。
主要注意三點(diǎn)
1. 是文章結構是否合理
2. 文章寫(xiě)作思路是否清晰。
3. 引用reference是否得體！
不在乎字數多少，也不在乎是否能夠寫(xiě)的特別專(zhuān)業(yè)，主要給老師看的，所以要顯示出你對課程的理解，領(lǐng)域的了解。平時(shí)多加思考，多看文章，看別人怎么寫(xiě)的。很重要。
如果大家有任何寫(xiě)論文和寫(xiě)作業(yè)的疑難問(wèn)題，也可以找 info@essaygo.com 提供免費咨詢(xún)和輔導等服務(wù)。
聯(lián)系客服
